Blog 8 - How can sustainability and global citizenship be promoted in primary education?

Today, sustainability and being a part of the world is more important than ever. With social media connecting us to the world there is no excuse for ignorance of the global issues that are occurring such as global warming, marine plastic pollution, animal poaching and deforestation. According to the Environmental Investigation Agency (2019) just one of the many environmental issues include the unprecedented growth in the production and use of plastics is triggering a global environmental crisis. Each year, at least 8,000,000 tonnes of plastics leak into the ocean, an amount set to quadruple by 2050 unless major reform is put in place. Here’s a video about how we can stop using plastic bags as just one form of reducing plastic.

How can all of these environmental factors be taught in primary school?

In the new Successful Futures curriculum (Donaldson, 2015) one of the purposes of the curriculum is that all our children and young people are ethical, informed citizens and show their commitment to the sustainability of the planet and are ready to be citizens of Wales and the world. It is important that sustainability is promoted by teachers in the school as this example will encourage the children to do the same. The Earth Day Network (2019) say for every annual Climate Education Week, we help educators to teach climate change with our Climate Education Week Toolkit, which includes a range of curricula, lesson plans, educational activities, and films. For 2018, the Earth Day week’s theme was end plastic pollution. It educated the children about how they can be more responsible with their waste and how they can continue to use what they’ve learnt in the week and implement it to their everyday life. 

Some of the things that could be promoted in primary school are recycling. The Young People’s Trust for the Environment (2019) provide lesson plans and people can come into the school to teach children about recycling. They also have resources for endangered species, plastic pollution and sustainable development . There are many different activities that could inspire children to be sustainable. For example, re-usable shopping bags. Rather than telling the children to buy a reusable shopping bag, maybe the school could provide a plain reusable shopping bag and decorate it and paint it in class as part of being the citizenship purpose of the curriculum and also for an expressive arts lesson. There are many ways in which learning about the environment can be transformative into lessons. Another lesson could be a science lesson to learn about the solar system. This could then lead to a lesson about the use of carbon dioxide and how this effects the planet. 

The Young People’s Trust for the Environment (2019) has a lesson plan for sustainability. This links to science and geography. It shows how the activities incorporate into the national curriculum and what key stage the activity is for. This lesson plan also connects to citizenship as it is connected to the wider world. Here’s a photo of the beginning of the plan. 

We could argue should it be parents’ responsibility or the school’s responsibility to teach children about sustainability? A study by Borg, Winberg and Vinterek (2017) says that “Although parents and preschool play important roles in developing children’s behaviour and attitudes, little is known about their influences on children’s learning of environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability.” It is also said in the article that sustainability means that a school is supposed to incorporate teaching and learning for sustainability not only through aspects of the curriculum but also through sustainable school operations such as integrated governance, stakeholder and community involvement, long term planning, and sustainability monitoring and evaluation” (Hargreaves, 2008, p.1). Therefore we could argue that Borg, Winberg and Vinterek (2017) believe that sustainability should be incorporated throughout society meaning both in school, at home and in the community.

What is your opinion on sustainability? Do you believe that school incorporate it enough? Do you remember learning about sustainability in primary school or do you think that it should be your families job to teach you about how to live sustainably?

References

Borg, F., Winberg, M., &Vinterek, M., (2017) Children’s Learning for a Sustainable Society: Influences from Home and Preschool, Education Inquiry, 8:2, 151-172, DOI: 10.1080/20004508.2017.1290915

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales, Welsh Government: OGL

Earth Day network (2019) https://www.earthday.org/campaigns/education/climate-education-week/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw7YblBRDFARIsAKkK-dKCUqgxekQqcmgYUqEBwh350GOpWvVV9YmH5f3vpY40yaJiCWbuGYgaAh-gEALw_wcB(Accessed 30 March, 2019)

Earth Day Network (2019) Climate Education Week Toolkit, 2018 https://160g7a3snajg2i1r662yjd5r-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/Education-Toolkit-022718.pdf(Accessed 30 March, 2019)

Environmental Investigation Agency (2019) https://eia-international.org/our-work/climate/(Accessed 30 March, 2019)

Hargreaves, L. G. (2008). The whole-school approach to eduation for sustainable development: From pilot projects to systemic change. Policy & Practice: A Development Education Review,6,69–74. Cited in Borg, F., Winberg, M., &Vinterek, M., (2017) Children’s Learning for a Sustainable Society: Influences from Home and Preschool, Education Inquiry, 8:2, 151-172, DOI: 10.1080/20004508.2017.1290915

Young People’s Trust for the Environment (2019) http://ypte.org.uk/lesson-plans/sustainable-development(Accessed 30 March, 2019) 

Blog 7 - What is the value of the expressive arts activities in primary education?

The expressive arts area of learning and experience is a very broad category and this is a good thing. There are many elements of the arts that can be explored such as art itself, drama, music, dance just to name a few. The question is how are all of these elements of art valuable to children in primary school? Many would argue that children should focus more on the core subjects as they are the most beneficial for life and employability skills but we often forget about the creative element which is a skill that is valued in many areas of society and the arts can help extend personal development.

Throughout my childhood, the arts have played a significant role in shaping who I am today. I believe they have made me a more confident and open minded individual. My interest in the arts emerged when I was eight as I wanted to start playing the piano. I was inspired to play because my nan could play the piano and wanted to follow in her footsteps. I was fascinated with learning how to read music, it was almost like learning another language. I also joined an Amateur Dramatics group in my local area. This boosted my confidence significantly as I made a lot of new friends of all ages. This also improved my social skills.

In the Successful Futures curriculum, it is clear that Donaldson wants to promote more creativity in the curriculum by implementing the expressive arts area of learning and experience. It is clear that we as a country have neglected the arts in the curriculum. It is important for children to experience the expressive arts as this has many cognitive benefits. In a study by Mannathoko and Mamvuto (2018) they state that in Australia and the United States, art and design has been embraced as a compulsory subject because of its integrative nature and its role in society. This is supported by Smith (2013) who says that ‘It is clear… that countries across the world recognise the significance and potential of the arts and enabling improved educational, social and economic outcomes’ (Donaldson, 2015).

Donaldson (2015) also says that the expressive arts promote exploration of issues of personal and cultural identity. This is supported by a study conducted by Gruska (2009, cited in Mannathoko & Mamvuto, 2018) in New South Wales, Australia, who acknowledges the critical role of art in developing self-identity and understanding of one’s society and culture.

There is a video that gives insight into why we should teach the expressive arts in primary schools. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x53CcI2udcE

On placement, the children took part in a PE lesson. In the lessons, the children are learning about dance. They have watched videos in class of different styles of dance and then in groups, were asked to perform a dance of a particular style. Some of the children did street dancing, some did ballet, some did expressive dance. There were obvious key characteristics for each style of dance and the children were able to differentiate between these styles. 

Whilst researching this topic, I struggled to find any negative points about teaching the expressive arts. We could argue that there are some disadvantages to teaching the arts in primary school. One of the disadvantages could be the teacher. Primary school teachers teach every subject in the curriculum, therefore if the teacher does not appreciate the arts, their negative view could be portrayed onto the children and this could make them un-interested in the subject. We could also argue that if the teacher has no experience in any area of the arts, how are they able to teach it effectively? Every teacher has to be able to spell, read, write, count but this is because they have been taught how to do it in school. If a teacher has never played an instrument, never painted, never performed in drama, how are they meant to teach these elements of the curriculum effectively and with excitement?

Another disadvantage could be the curriculum. Due to the cross curricular element of the curriculum which includes literacy, numeracy and digital competency, we could argue that these elements take away from the raw experience of the arts. In my personal opinion, I believe that the arts should be free and children should be able to explore the arts without being confined to these cross curricular elements. All of the cross curricular elements apply in the arts, but should not be the main focus for doing a particular task. 

What is your opinion on the expressive arts? Do you believe they hold value in the curriculum or should the sole purpose of the curriculum be to teach children the more mainstream subjects?

References

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales, Welsh Government: OGL

Gruska, K. (2009). Meaning and identities: A visual performative pedagogy for socio-cultural learning. The Curriculum Journal, 20(3) 237-251. Mannathoko, M. & Mamvuto, A. (2018) Teaching the Arts in the Primary School Curriculum: What Strategies Imbue the Integrative Arts Subjects?, Studies in Art Education, 59:2, 145-158, DOI: 10.1080/00393541.2018.1440149 

Mannathoko, M. & Mamvuto, A. (2018) Teaching the Arts in the Primary School Curriculum: What Strategies Imbue the Integrative Arts Subjects?, Studies in Art Education, 59:2, 145-158, DOI: 10.1080/00393541.2018.1440149 

Smith, D (2013) An independent report for the Welsh Government into Arts in Education in the Schools of Wales Arts Council of Wales cited in Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales, Welsh Government: OGL

Blog 6 - What is the value of the Welsh Language in primary education?

One of the questions that are frequently debated in primary education in Wales is the value of the Welsh language. From my personal experience as a welsh school student, I believe that being able to speak Welsh is a very valuable skill in this country as it can provide further opportunities for teaching and learning.

Reminiscing about my childhood in a Welsh speaking schools brings back a lot of fond memories and many life experiences which English speaking schools miss out on. These experiences could include visiting Llangrannog, Tan-y-Bwlch, participating in the National Eisteddfod across the county, vising Snowdonia National Park and so on. We could argue that English speaking schools could all do these things. They could, but the language barrier, especially in North Wales could be a challenge as on a few occasions when entering shops in North Wales, the employees would greet you in Welsh and sometimes, Welsh is the only language they speak.

In the Donaldson (2015) report, one of the values of the new Successful curriculum is that they want to ensure that their education system makes it possible for more learners of all ages to acquire a wider range of language skills in Welsh and that there is confidence and pride in Wales as a bilingual nation with the strength and assurance to nurture both languages. One of the goals for the curriculum include a Wales that is prosperous, resilient, healthier, and more equal, with cohesive communities, a vibrant culture and a thriving Welsh language (Donaldson, 2015).

A question we must consider for this topic is the value of bilingualism itself. Is there an advantage to it? Many studies have suggested that bilinguals have an advantage over monolinguals in executive control. Evidence for this claim has been obtained in studies with children (Bialystok & Martin, 2004), young adults (Costa, Hernández, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2008), and older adults (Gold, Kim, Johnson, Kryscio, & Smith, 2013) (de Bruin et al. 2015). 

From my own personal experience of being bilingual, I believe that there are many benefits. In my everyday life, I use Welsh quite frequently, in the house, in placement, in university and in work. An example of this is on placement where the teacher needed help filming the year 5/6 pupils speaking welsh to send to the comprehensive school. The lack of understanding of the language was evident by the teacher as some of the sentence structures were not correct, therefore I helped her by going over their paragraphs and ensuring that their welsh was correct and helped them practice their paragraph before filming.

In broader terms, I believe that by being bilingual, I found it a lot easier to learn other foreign languages such as Spanish and French as the sentence patterns in foreign languages are the same as in the Welsh language. This made it easier to understand the other languages and how to structure sentences. This statement is supported by Bonfiglio (2017) who says that an amazing benefit of being bilingual is that you can learn additional languages more easily than monolinguals. If you have learned a second language already, then learning a third means transferring those skills over. Here’s a video that highlights some of the benefits of bilingualism.

The opposing argument is that many studies have shown that there is no advantage to speaking more than one language. De Bruin et al. (2015) argues that not all studies have found that bilinguals have an advantage over monolinguals. Some of these studies have been published (e.g., Gathercole et al., 2014; Paap & Greenberg, 2013), but we suspected that many other studies of this nature have not. Paap (2014) raised the concern that the literature on bilingualism and executive control might be affected by a confirmation bias to report positive results only. 

In regards to the value of the Welsh language, I don’t believe many people in Wales value it as Harris (2013) says that the Welsh language is steadily declining and yet, the amount of Welsh-speaking schools are on the rise. This statement is interesting because when we think about other countries such as Spain for example, they learn Spanish because that is their native language and the vast majority of the country speaks Spanish. In Spain, they may learn English as it is one of the most used languages in the world. When we compare this to Wales, although Welsh is our native language, barely anybody is able to speak the language with approximately only 311,000 young people and adults speaking the language fluently (Statistics for Wales, 2015). The language is also not very versatile as Welsh is not a well-known language across the world, therefore it only holds it’s value in a confined area or country. This is supported by Harris (2013) who says that Welsh-speaking bilingual workers are immobile their advantage exists only in a small enclave.

There are many angles in this argument to consider while trying to come to a definitive answer. However I do believe that for the people who can speak welsh, we are at an advantage in our country regarding job prospects especially in primary education as schools across Wales are desperate for teachers who are bilingual since the Welsh language is compulsory in all schools across Wales. Also I believe that if more children are taught Welsh and use small amounts every day, this could have a positive impact on the amount of people that can speak the language. What are your thoughts on this topic?

References

Bialystok, E., & martin, M.M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7, 325-339 cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Bonfiglio, C (2017) 10 Amazing Benefits of Being Bilingual, Bilingual Kidspot [Online] https://bilingualkidspot.com/2017/05/23/benefits-of-being-bilingual/(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Costa, A., Hernández, M., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008) Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106, 59-86 cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales, Welsh Government: OGL 

Gathercole, V. C., Thomas, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N., Viñas Guasch, N., . . . Jones, L. (2014). Does language dominance affect cognitive performance in bilinguals? Lifespan evidence from preschoolers through older adults on card sorting, Simon, and metalinguistic tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(11). Retrieved from http://journal.frontiersin .org/Journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00011/full cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Gold, B. T., Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Kryscio, R. J., & Smith, C. D. (2013). Lifelong bilingualism maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 387–396. cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Harris, E (2013) Home Truths: the decline of the Welsh language, Open Democracy: London

Paap, K. R. (2014). The role of componential analysis, cate- gorical hypothesising, replicability and confirmation bias in testing for bilingual advantages in executive functioning. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26, 242–255. doi:10.1080/ 20445911.2014.891597 cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66, 232–258. cited in De Bruin et al. (2015) Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science 26(1) 99-107 [Online] https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797614557866(Accessed: 26, March 2019)

Statistics for Wales (2015) National Survey for Wales 2013-14: Welsh language use survey, Welsh Government, OGL: Cardiff [Online] http://www.comisiynyddygymraeg.cymru/English/Publications%20List/20150129%20DG%20S%20Welsh%20Language%20Use%20Survey%202013-14%20-%20Main%20report.pdf(Accessed 26, March 2019)

Blog 5 - How can science and technology be made engaging and relevant in primary education?

How can science and technology be made engaging and relevant in primary education?

In primary education, I believe that science predominantly, is undervalued. From my own personal experience in primary school, the science lessons were rare and technology did not play a very big part in the lessons as the use of technology in the classroom was a new concept at the time. Since the awakening of the technological era, the use of technology in schools has increased significantly with children using technology more than ever inside, and outside the classroom. The use of technology has become a norm in everyday living and as a result, the UK’s curriculum is focusing more and more on ICT, moving it away from a lesson in itself, and towards using technology to explore different subjects. (Intel, 2018) This is implemented in Donaldson’s (2015) Successful Futures curriculum as he is now introducing digital competency as a cross curricular skill alongside literacy and numeracy.

As technology has evolved, I believe that schools have subconsciously neglected science as Goerge (2018) states that the subject has become a victim of English and Mathematics and is being squeezed out of primary schools. This statement is supported in an Estyn (2013) report of the school I am currently doing placement in. `It states that the school was the bottom 25% for the core subject indicator for English, mathematics and science (Estyn, 2013). In their most recent Estyn report of 2017, the school says that the school has devoted more time to improving children’s core skills in science. The example from this school could be a reflection on Britain as a whole as a statement by George (2018) says that “when the government last monitored the national performance of 11-year-olds in science two years ago, it found that less than a quarter - 23 per cent - had achieved the expected standard.”

There are many activities that could peak children’s interest in science. This could include visiting a learning facility such as Techniquest in Cardiff Bay. From visiting Techniquest with the University, it was clear that schools could benefit from this experience as there are a range of interactive activities, theatre rooms to learn about the environment and space for all key stages and also a series of laboratories to engage in various experiments. The first activity upon arrival was the theatre room where a scientist was conducting an interactive lesson on the environment. This interactive experience included the participation of the children to help them visualize the impact on the environment such as air pollution, platic in the ocean, and pollen levels. This activity also allowed the children to convey their thoughts on how we can improve our environment regarding these topics. Learning about the environment and the things we can do to help is increasingly important in today’s society as global warming continues to worsen. This is reflected in research by Summers, Kruger and Childs (2010) who say that education about the environment is of such importance that it should begin in primary schools. 

The other activity we participated in was visiting the laboratory and solving some visually deceptive experiments. It is important for children to experience a laboratory as there aren’t any in primary schools, therefore this could be a good transition for year six children going to comprehensive school. Also, by having an authentic experience of science, these types of workshops provide an opportunity for learners to meet ‘real’ scientists, with one of the take-home messages from the day being that anyone can get involved in science, whatever their ability or subject of interest (Muller et al. 2013). 

The first experiment consisted of a long narrow tube inside a short wide tube, both has the same surface area. The long narrow tube was filled all the way to the top with sand. Before the sand in the long tube was emptied into to short tube we had to answer a question. Would the sand fill up to the top of the short tube, would it overflow, or would there be too little sand. This really engages the mind and encourages children to think for themselves what the answer may be. Here’s a photo of the task.

 Similar experiments were conducted in the laboratory, here are a few clips of the activities that we took part in. 

In my opinion, I believe that there is not enough emphasis on science in schools and I believe that science should be made more interesting by conducting experiments instead of viewing science as noting facts, graphs and equations. Thanks to the advancement of technology in schools, there are many free programmes and workshops online and there are also many resources and experiments available on youtube which will be linked below for some inspiration. As technology is advancing science is being left behind. Despite this, it is important that children see the link between the two. Without science, technology may not be as advanced today. What is your opinion on the use of science in primary schools? Does your primary school effectively teach science? Is there enough science being taught in schools? 

References

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales, Welsh Government: OGL 

Estyn (2013) Estyn (2013) A report on Goetre Primary School [Online] https://www.estyn.gov.wales/sites/default/files/documents/Inspection%20report%20Goetre%20Primary%20School%202013%20%28English%20only%29_0.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf(Accessed, 25 March, 2019)

Estyn (2017) Estyn (2017) Report following monitoring Level of follow-up: significant improvement Goetre Primary School [Online] https://www.estyn.gov.wales/sites/default/files/documents/Inspection%20report%20Goetre%20Primary%20School%202013%20%28English%20only%29_0.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf.pdf(Accessed 25 March, 2019)

George, M. (2018) Why is primary science dying? The Times Educational Supplement, TES Global Ltd: London [Online] https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/docview/2029472613/abstract/1EDB029123F245E9PQ/1?accountid=15588(Accessed 25 March, 2019)

Intel (2018) Research Report: UK, The road to digital learning Fujitsu: London [Online] https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/HEFI/FUJ-Education-Report-UK.pdf(Accessed: 25 March, 2019) 

Muller, C.L et al.(2013) The Blue Marble: A model for primary STEM outreach Physics, Education (48) 176 [Online] https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/article/10.1088/0031-9120/48/2/176/pdf(Accessed: 25 march. 2019)

Summers, M., Kruger, C. & Childs, A. (2001) Understanding the science 

of environmental issues: development of a subject knowledge guide for primary teacher education, International Journal of Science Education, 23:1, 33-53 [Online] https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.cardiffmet.ac.uk/doi/abs/10.1080/09500690116990#aHR0cHM6Ly93d3ctdGFuZGZvbmxpbmUtY29tLmV6cHJveHkuY2FyZGlmZm1ldC5hYy51ay9kb2kvcGRmLzEwLjEwODAvMDk1MDA2OTAxMTY5OTA/bmVlZEFjY2Vzcz10cnVlQEBAMA== (Accessed 25 March, 2019)

Blog 4 - Does class size matter?

Blog 4 – Does Class Size Matter?

What is your instant thought when it comes to class size? Without thinking about any evidence, I automatically assume smaller = better as there would be less homework to mark, more time to spend on planning better quality lessons, a better student to teacher ratio so that you can be a bit more helpful in class. In this blog I will be putting these common preconceptions of smaller class sized to rest.

Smaller = Better 

Blatchford (2012, p.57) says ‘what could be more obvious: fewer pupils in a class is surely better for the pupils and for the teacher?’ This is what the majority of people think when discussing class sizes. Some of the benefits of a smaller class size is paying more attention to individual pupils, less disruption to learning, less paper work so that time can be spent creating engaging, challenging lessons. Achilles argues that small classes are so important that they should be the corner stone of education policy (1999).

There have been many Class Size Reduction Schemes (CRS) seen globally in East Asia, US, the Netherlands and Canada. The Scottish Government went even further to place a cap of 25 pupils to a class (Blatchford, 2012). Even Wales has started to consider the option of reducing class sizes for better quality teaching as Kirsty Williams, our Education Minister has plans in place to put £36 million into the reduction of class sizes to raise standards by 2021. (Welsh Government 2018). Kirsty Williams says in this report that smaller class sizes are crucial for both improved attainment in those early years of education and helping teachers to manage their workload. Although this sounds accurate, there is no evidence to validate this statement. 

Mitchell (2008) says Class size needs to be given very careful consideration. Evidence points to benefits being obtained when the class size is reduced to 15 or so. There is not sufficient evidence to support this statement but. As one group of researchers put it:

at the extremes (Very large vs very small) the size of the class will have discernible and meaningful effects on students’ learning. With the more usual class sizes, however, the findings are less consistent but seem to favour - at least slightly - smaller classes.

I believe it is important to note that many people disagree with the smaller class concept and are actually more inclined to believe that bigger class sizes are better for learning such as Andreas Schleicher (PISA Head), and Bill Gates just to name a couple. They believe that there is no sufficient evidence to prove that smaller class sizes are better. Bill Gates is an advocate for bigger class sizes, his theory is that there should be a number of good quality teachers and pay them a better wage. 

‘This goes against the gut feeling of many teachers’ (DeBruyckere, 2015, p.171). A servey for teacher and Lecturers by the Association of Teachers ans Lecturer’s found that almost all surveyed felt that there should be a maximum number of children in their class and that bigger class sizes increased work load, increased stress levels and decreased class attention.

Hattie, J (2009, p. 121) conducted a meta-analysis into the quality of learning connected to class sizes. He says that ‘it appears that the effects of reducing class size may be higher on teachers and student work related conditions, which may or may not translate into effects on student learning.’ He also found that ‘There is a different concept of excellent teaching in larger classes than when teaching smaller classes of 25-30… for classes of 80 or more students (University) it is probably necessary to assume that individual students are self-regulated to learn; the major task of the teacher is to deliver content more chalk and talk lessons no toleration of deviant behavior.’ (2009, p.121)

Class size doesn’t matter

There is a video on youtubeabout class size not making a difference. Dobbelsteen (2002) says that the quality of the teacher is more important than class size. It is better to have a class of 28-30 pupils with a god teacher than a class of 22-24 pupils with a mediocre teacher.

If we reduce class sizes there are a number of things to consider such as needing more class assistance, needing to build new schools therefore requiring more funding from the Government and most importantly more teachers.

Economist Hanushek argues against reducing class sizes an says that many arguments come from teachers who are looking to make their lives easier, reducing class size is not cost effective and a good use of public funds (2011). Has Kirsty Williams put this funding in the right area? Could this money have been used in more effective ways such as buying better teaching resources, improving health and well-being by funding healthier foods and physical education schemes?

To conclude, class sizes will always be necessary at some point of reasons of cost! Institutions such as the OECD continue to see little effect from smaller class size on their results. Blatchfod (2012, p.72) says that just reducing class size and hoping for the best is not likely to be effective.

What do you think? Are smaller classes better for teaching quality, or are larger classes better for behaviour and more independent learners?

References 

Achilles, C.A. (1999) Let’s Put Kids First, Finally: Getting Size Right. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press

Blatchford, P. (2012) ‘Class size: is small better?’ cited in Dillon, J. (2012) Debunking myths in Education. Open University Press: New York

De Bruyckere, P. Kirschner, P. and Hulshof, C. (2015). Urban Myths about Learning and Education. Burlington: Elsevier Science. 

Dobbelsteen, S., Levin, J., and Oosterbeek, H. (2002) The Casual effect of class size on scholastic achievement: Distinguishing the pure class size effect from the effect of change in class composition. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 64(1), 17-38

Hanushek, E. (2011) The Economic value of higher teacher quality, economics of Education Review, 30: 466-79

Mitchell, D (2008) What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education: Using evidence-based teaching strategies

Welsh Government (2018) Available at: https://gov.wales/newsroom/educationandskills/2018/new-fund-sees-appointment-of-80-new-teachers-to-reduce-class-sizes/?lang=en(Accessed 5 December 2018)

Youtube Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6zuENzsIHw(Accessed 5 December 2018)

Blog 3 – Does the Mozart Effect make you more intelligent?

It would be nice to imagine the idea that by listening to a composition of classical music we could increase our intelligence levels in an instant. Despite a lot of media attention and many books, CD’s and tapes made about the legendary Mozart Effect, I must say, being a previous music student for A Levels and having to listen to hours of Mozart, I don’t believe the Mozart effect is valid. To gain a basic understanding of what the Mozart effect is watch this video.

The Mozart effect came around when the publication of the finding of Rauscher et al. (1993) that subjects score higher in standardized tests assessing spatial task performance after exposure to the first movement “allegro con spirito” of the Mozart sonata KV 448 for two pianos in D major(mean-differences of 8–9 IQ points in the spatial reasoning subtest of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale) entailed vast interest in the scientific community, as well as in popular media. . (Piestching et al.2010)

Although the Mozart effect was originally demonstrated in college students and employed tests measuring only spatial ability, popular media referring to this finding reported that exposure to Mozart music will somehow enhance the intelligence of children. (Piestching et al. 2010)

The Arousal Theory

Several authors have suggested that enhancement of subsequent cognitive functioning may simply be attributed to an increase in arousal facilitated by, but not specific to, exposure to the Mozart piece (Chabris, 1999; Steele, 2000; Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001; Lints & Gadbois, 2003) (Roth and Smith, 2008). 

Chabris (1999) acknowledged that there was a moderate advantage in the Mozart condition, but after a meta-analysis of the 16 papers published at that time, he deduced that it was most likely due to a short-term "enjoyment arousal" facilitated by the music. (Roth and Smith, 2008). 

Another test was conducted by Nantais and Schellenberg (1999) who gave a similar explanation for higher performance on the spatial-temporal task in terms of elevation of mood facilitated via exposure to a preferred stimulus. Instead of using silence or "relaxation" control groups, these authors utilized the reading of a short story by Stephen King, which yielded results similar to those for the Mozart condition. 

When you listen to these songs, how do you feel? (Sad, happy, angry, calm)

1)    Waterfall– The Stone Roses

2)    String Quartet No. 8- Dimitri Shostakovich

3)    Ace of Spades– Motorhead

4)    Adagio for strings– Tiesto

5)    I Feel Good– James Brown

After listening to this variety of music, ask yourself do you think you would complete tasks faster or slower based on the speed/mood of the song?

The theory is still seen in books as it is believed to help children with complex needs. Ockelford (2008) says that it is axiomatic that the musical significance of the repetition of sounds can only be appreciated within the context of understanding their potential variations, and it appears that this capacity is usually in place shortly after birth, evidenced both by listening and by vocal production. Yet there is no direct link to Mozart’s music and helping children with complex needs. 

In one of the lectures a few of us were asked to listen to Mozart and some were asked to listen to their own music choice, the rest were in silence, before completing a times table test. The ones who were listening to their own music finished the quiz the quickest, then I came third after listening to Mozart and everyone else came shortly behind. 

Although there may be some truth in the arousal theory there are still a lot of varying factors as to why the people finished the test when they did. These factors are ones we cannot control such as natural intelligence (I would personally say that I am good at maths), the environment, as many people are shy, maybe someone who sat in silence finished first but did not say due to shyness, the music theory – the song was in allegro which means a fast pace, there were many ascending and descending scales moving at a fast pace, maybe because the music was moving quickly, it made me want to answer the questions faster?  

What is your opinion in the Mozart effect? Could there be some truth in this theory or are we over the concept and ready to debunk this theory?

References

Chabris, C. F. (1999). Prelude or requiem for the ‘Mozart effect’? Nature, 400,826−827. Cited in Pietsching, J., Voracek, M., and Formann, A.K. (2010) ‘Intelligence’ Mozart effect-Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis(38) pp. 314-323 (Accessed: 27 November 2018)

Lints, A., & Gadbois, S. (2003). Is listening to Mozart the only way to enhance spatial reasoning? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97, 1163−1174. Cited in Pietsching, J., Voracek, M., and Formann, A.K. (2010) ‘Intelligence’ Mozart effect-Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis(38) pp. 314-323 (Accessed: 27 November 2018)

Nantaisk, M., and Schellenbereg, G. (1999) The Mozart effect: an artifact of preference. Psychological Science 10, 370-372. Cited in Roth, E.A and Smith, K.H. (2008) ‘Perpetual and Motor Skills’ The Mozart Effect: Evidence for the Arousal Hypothesis pp. 396-402 (Accessed 27 November 2018)

Pietsching, J., Voracek, M., and Formann, A.K. (2010) ‘Intelligence’ Mozart effect-Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis(38) pp. 314-323 (Accessed: 27 November 2018)

Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, C. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365(6447), 611-611.

Roth, E.A and Smith, K.H. (2008) ‘Perpetual and Motor Skills’ The Mozart Effect: Evidence for the Arousal Hypothesis pp. 396-402 (Accessed 27 November 2018)

Schellenberg, E. G. (2006). Exposure to music: the truth about the consequences. In G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The child as musician: A handbook of musical develop- ment (pp. 111−134). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cited in Pietsching, J., Voracek, M., and Formann, A.K. (2010) ‘Intelligence’ Mozart effect-Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis(38) pp. 314-323 (Accessed: 27 November 2018)

Steele, K. M. (2000). Arousal and mood factors in the “Mozart effect.” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91, 188-190. Cited in Pietsching, J., Voracek, M., and Formann, A.K. (2010) ‘Intelligence’ Mozart effect-Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis(38) pp. 314-323 (Accessed: 27 November 2018)